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National Science Standards-Grades 9-12 found on Level 2

Science Content Standards: 9-12

Note: Whenever you see this picture, look for a quote of special interest from the National Academy Press, National Science Education Standards publication. © The NAP reserves all rights, and our use is with permission!

Science as Inquiry

CONTENT STANDARD A:

This standard describes the fundamental abilities and understandings of inquiry, as well as a larger framework for conducting scientific investigations of natural phenomena.

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop:

	Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry	Example 1
	Understandings about scientific inquiry	Example 1; Example 2

For samples of an ALLSTAR lesson for this standard, click on the word "Example" or highlighted word(s) in the text.

Note: Whenever you see this picture, look for a quote of special interest from the National Academy Press, National Science Education Standards publication. © The NAP reserves all rights, and our use is with permission!

Physical Science

CONTENT STANDARD B:

As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop an understanding of:

For samples of an ALLSTAR lesson for this standard, click on the word "Example" or highlighted word(s) in the text.

GUIDE TO CONTENT STANDARD "B"

Fundamental concepts and principles that underlie this standard include:

STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

• The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart. Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.

Examples for Structure of Atoms

Example 1

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• The physical properties of compounds reflect the nature of the interactions among its molecules. These interactions are determined by the structure of the molecule, including the constituent atoms and the distances and angles between them.
• Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the distances and angles between molecules or atoms and therefore the energy that binds them together. In solids the structure is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules or atoms move around each other but do not move apart; and in gases molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other and are mostly far apart.

Examples for Structure and Properties of Matter

Example 1

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Chemical reactions occur all around us, for example ...in automobiles.
• Chemical reactions may release or consume energy. Some reactions such as the burning of fossil fuels
  release large amounts of energy by losing heat and by emitting light. Light can initiate many chemical
  reactions such as photosynthesis and the evolution of urban smog.
• Radical reactions control many processes such as the presence of ozone and greenhouse gases in the
  atmosphere, burning and processing of fossil fuels, the formation of polymers, and explosions.
• Chemical reactions can take place in time periods ranging from the few femtoseconds (10-15 seconds)
  required for an atom to move a fraction of a chemical bond..... Reaction rates depend on how often the reacting atoms and molecules encounter one another, on the temperature, and on the properties--including shape--of the reacting species.

Examples for Chemical Reactions

Example 1

MOTIONS AND FORCES

• Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Laws of motion are used to calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects. The magnitude of the change in motion can be calculated using the relationship F = ma, which is independent of the nature of the force. Whenever one object exerts force on another, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction is exerted on the first object.
• Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• The electric force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects. Opposite charges attract while like charges repel. The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and, as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• Between any two charged particles, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force. Most observable forces such as those exerted by a coiled spring or friction may be traced to electric forces acting between atoms and molecules.
• Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electric forces. These effects help students to understand electric motors and generators.

Examples for Motions and Forces

Example 1; Example 2; Example 3

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND THE INCREASE IN DISORDER

• All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.
• Heat consists of random motion and the vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
• Everything tends to become less organized and less orderly over time. Thus, in all energy transfers, the overall effect is that the energy is spread out uniformly. Examples are the transfer of energy from hotter to cooler objects by conduction, radiation, or convection and the warming of our surroundings when we burn fuels.

Examples for Conservation of Energy and Increase in Disorder

Example 1; Example 2

INTERACTIONS OF ENERGY AND MATTER

• Waves, including sound and seismic waves, waves on water, and light waves, have energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter. [See Content Standard D (grades 9-12) ]
• Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
• Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts and thus can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to these amounts. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance.
• In some materials, such as metals, electrons flow easily, whereas in insulating materials such as glass they can hardly flow at all. Semiconducting materials have intermediate behavior. At low temperatures some materials become superconductors and offer no resistance to the flow of electrons.

Examples for Interactions of Energy and Matter

Example 1

DEVELOPING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

"High-school students develop the ability to relate the macroscopic properties of substances that they study in grades K-8 to the microscopic structure of substances. This development in understanding requires students to move among three domains of thought--the macroscopic world of observable phenomena, the microscopic world of molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles, and the symbolic and mathematical world of chemical formulas, equations, and symbols."

Life Science CONTENT STANDARD C: N/A

Earth and Space Science CONTENT STANDARD D: N/A

Note: Whenever you see this picture, look for a quote of special interest from the National Academy Press, National Science Education Standards publication. © The NAP reserves all rights, and our use is with permission!

Science and Technology

CONTENT STANDARD E:

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop

For samples of an ALLSTAR lesson for this standard, click on the word "Example" or highlighted word(s) in the text.

GUIDE TO CONTENT STANDARD "E"

Fundamental abilities and concepts that underlie this standard include:

ABILITIES OF TECHNOLOGICAL DESIGN

• IDENTIFY A PROBLEM OR DESIGN AN OPPORTUNITY. Students should be able to identify new problems or needs and to change and improve current technological designs. [ See Content Standard A (grades 9-12)]

• PROPOSE DESIGNS AND CHOOSE BETWEEN ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS. Students should demonstrate thoughtful planning for a piece of technology or technique. Students should be introduced to the roles of models and simulations in these processes.

• IMPLEMENT A PROPOSED SOLUTION. A variety of skills can be needed in proposing a solution depending on the type of technology that is involved. The construction of artifacts can require the skills of cutting, shaping, treating, and joining common materials--such as wood, metal, plastics, and textiles. Solutions can also be implemented using computer software.

• EVALUATE THE SOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. Students should test any solution against the needs and criteria it was designed to meet. At this stage, new criteria not originally considered may be reviewed.

• COMMUNICATE THE PROBLEM, PROCESS, AND SOLUTION. Students should present their results to students, teachers, and others in a variety of ways, such as orally, in writing, and in other forms--including models, diagrams, and demonstrations. [See Teaching Standard B]

Examples for Abilities of Technological Design

Example 1

UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

• Scientists in different disciplines ask different questions, use different methods of investigation, and accept different types of evidence to support their explanations. Many scientific investigations require the contributions of individuals from different disciplines, including engineering. New disciplines of science, such as geophysics and biochemistry often emerge at the interface of two older disciplines.

• Science often advances with the introduction of new technologies. Solving technological problems often results in new scientific knowledge. New technologies often extend the current levels of scientific understanding and introduce new areas of research.

• Creativity, imagination, and a good knowledge base are all required in the work of science and engineering.

• Science and technology are pursued for different purposes. Scientific inquiry is driven by the desire to understand the natural world, and technological design is driven by the need to meet human needs and solve human problems. Technology, by its nature, has a more direct effect on society than science because its purpose is to solve human problems, help humans adapt, and fulfill human aspirations. Technological solutions may create new problems. Science, by its nature, answers questions that may or may not directly influence humans. Sometimes scientific advances challenge people's beliefs and practical explanations concerning various aspects of the world.

• Technological knowledge is often not made public because of patents and the financial potential of the idea or invention. Scientific knowledge is made public through presentations at professional meetings and publications in scientific journals.

Examples for Understandings About Science and Technology

Example 1 ; Example 2

DEVELOPING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

"... In general, high school students do not distinguish between the roles of science and technology. Helping them do so is implied by this standard. This lack of distinction between science and technology is further confused by students' positive perceptions of science, as when they associate it with medical research and use the common phrase "scientific progress." However, their association of technology is often with environmental problems and another common phrase, "technological problems." With regard to the connection between science and technology, students as well as many adults and teachers of science indicate a belief that science influences technology..."

Note: Whenever you see this picture, look for a quote of special interest from the National Academy Press, National Science Education Standards publication. © The NAP reserves all rights, and our use is with permission!

Science in Personal and Social Perspectives

CONTENT STANDARD F:

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop understanding of:

	Personal and community health
	Population growth	N/A
	Natural resources	N/A
	Environmental quality	N/A
	Natural and human-induced hazards
	Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges

For samples of an ALLSTAR lesson for this standard, click on the word "Example" or highlighted word(s) in the text.

GUIDE TO CONTENT STANDARD "F"

Fundamental concepts and principles that underlie this standard include

PERSONAL AND COMMUNITY HEALTH

• Hazards and the potential for accidents exist. Regardless of the environment, the possibility of injury, illness, disability, or death may be present. Humans have a variety of mechanisms--sensory, motor, emotional, social, and technological--that can reduce and modify hazards. [See Content Standard C (grades 9-12) ]

Examples for Personal and Community Health

Example 1

NATURAL AND HUMAN-INDUCED HAZARDS

• Human activities can enhance potential for hazards. Acquisition of resources, urban growth, and waste disposal can accelerate rates of natural change.

• Natural and human-induced hazards present the need for humans to assess potential danger and risk. Many changes in the environment designed by humans bring benefits to society, as well as cause risks. Students should understand the costs and trade-offs of various hazards--ranging from those with minor risk to a few people to major catastrophes with major risk to many people. The scale of events and the accuracy with which scientists and engineers can (and cannot) predict events are important considerations.

Examples for Natural and Human-induced Hazards

Example 1

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN LOCAL, NATIONAL, AND GLOBAL CHALLENGES

• Science and technology are essential social enterprises, but alone they can only indicate what can happen, not what should happen. The latter involves human decisions about the use of knowledge. [See Content Standard E (grades 9-12)]

• Understanding basic concepts and principles of science and technology should precede active debate about the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of various science- and technology-related challenges. However, understanding science alone will not resolve local, national, or global challenges.

• Progress in science and technology can be affected by social issues and challenges. Funding priorities for specific health problems serve as examples of ways that social issues influence science and technology.

• Individuals and society must decide on proposals involving new research and the introduction of new technologies into society. Decisions involve assessment of alternatives, risks, costs, and benefits and consideration of who benefits and who suffers, who pays and gains, and what the risks are and who bears them. Students should understand the appropriateness and value of basic questions--"What can happen?"--"What are the odds?"--and "How do scientists and engineers know what will happen?"

• Humans have a major effect on other species. For example, the influence of humans on other organisms occurs through land use--which decreases space available to other species--and pollution--which changes the chemical composition of air, soil, and water.

Examples for Science and Technology in Local, National, and Global Challenges

Example 1

DEVELOPING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

"The organizing principles for this standard do not identify specific personal and societal challenges, rather they form a set of conceptual organizers, fundamental understandings, and implied actions for most contemporary issues. The organizing principles apply to local as well as global phenomena and represent challenges that occur on scales that vary from quite short--for example, natural hazards--to very long--for example, the potential result of global changes."

Note: Whenever you see this picture, look for a quote of special interest from the National Academy Press, National Science Education Standards publication. © The NAP reserves all rights, and our use is with permission!

History and Nature of Science

CONTENT STANDARD G:

As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop understanding of

	Science as a human endeavor
	Nature of science
	History of science

For samples of an ALLSTAR lesson for this standard, click on the word "Example" or highlighted word(s) in the text.

GUIDE TO CONTENT STANDARD "G"

Fundamental concepts and principles that underlie this standard include:

SCIENCE AS A HUMAN ENDEAVOR

• Individuals and teams have contributed and will continue to contribute to the scientific enterprise. Doing science or engineering can be as simple as an individual conducting field studies or as complex as hundreds of people working on a major scientific question or technological problem. Pursuing science as a career or as a hobby can be both fascinating and intellectually rewarding.
• Scientists have ethical traditions. Scientists value peer review, truthful reporting about the methods and outcomes of investigations, and making public the results of work. Violations of such norms do occur, but scientists responsible for such violations are censured by their peers.
• Scientists are influenced by societal, cultural, and personal beliefs and ways of viewing the world. Science is not separate from society but rather science is a part of society.

Example for Science as a Human Endeavor

Example 1

NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

• Science distinguishes itself from other ways of knowing and from other bodies of knowledge through the use of empirical standards, logical arguments, and skepticism, as scientists strive for the best possible explanations about the natural world.
• Scientific explanations must meet certain criteria. First and foremost, they must be consistent with experimental and observational evidence about nature, and must make accurate predictions, when appropriate, about systems being studied. They should also be logical, respect the rules of evidence, be open to criticism, report methods and procedures, and make knowledge public. Explanations on how the natural world changes based on myths, personal beliefs, religious values, mystical inspiration, superstition, or authority may be personally useful and socially relevant, but they are not scientific.
• Because all scientific ideas depend on experimental and observational confirmation, all scientific knowledge is, in principle, subject to change as new evidence becomes available. The core ideas of science such as the conservation of energy or the laws of motion have been subjected to a wide variety of confirmations and are therefore unlikely to change in the areas in which they have been tested. In areas where data or understanding are incomplete, such as the details of human evolution or questions surrounding global warming, new data may well lead to changes in current ideas or resolve current conflicts. In situations where information is still fragmentary, it is normal for scientific ideas to be incomplete, but this is also where the opportunity for making advances may be greatest.
• Science distinguishes itself from other ways of knowing and from other bodies of knowledge through the use of empirical standards, logical arguments, and skepticism.

Example for Nature of Science

Example 1

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

• In history, diverse cultures have contributed scientific knowledge and technologic inventions. Modern science began to evolve rapidly in Europe several hundred years ago. During the past two centuries, it has contributed significantly to the industrialization of Western and non-Western cultures. However, other, non-European cultures have developed scientific ideas and solved human problems through technology.
• Usually, changes in science occur as small modifications in extant knowledge. The daily work of science and engineering results in incremental advances in our understanding of the world and our ability to meet human needs and aspirations. Much can be learned about the internal workings of science and the nature of science from study of individual scientists, their daily work, and their efforts to advance scientific knowledge in their area of study.
• The historical perspective of scientific explanations demonstrates how scientific knowledge changes by evolving over time, almost always building on earlier knowledge.

Example for History of Science

Example 1

DEVELOPING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

"The National Science Education Standards use history to elaborate various aspects of scientific inquiry, the nature of science, and science in different historical and cultural perspectives. The standards on the history and nature of science are closely aligned with the nature of science and historical episodes described in the American Association for the Advancement of Science Benchmarks for Science Literacy. Teachers of science can incorporate other historical examples that may accommodate different interests, topics, disciplines, and cultures--as the intention of the standard is to develop an understanding of the human dimensions of science, the nature of scientific knowledge, and the enterprise of science in society--and not to develop a comprehensive understanding of history."

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Updated: February 23, 1999